Natural Hazards Big Island

1991 Vog and Laze Seminar Abstracts

Vog and Laze Seminar

29 July 1991

Center for the Study of Active Volcanoes
University of Hawaiʻi at Hilo
Hilo, Hawaiʻi 96720-4091

How Vog Is Made: A Photographic Perspective

J. B. Stokes
U.S. Geological Survey, Hawaiian Volcano Observatory
P.O. Box 51, Hawaiʻi National Park, HI 96718

The principle mission of the U.S. Geological Survey's Hawaiian Volcano Observatory (HVO) is to understand how Hawaiian volcanoes work, and evaluate the hazards posed by a volcanic eruptions and their associated effects. As a part of this goal, HVO has accumulated nearly a decade of geochemical information about. Kilauea from extensive monitoring of both the chemistry and total amounts of gases emitted from vents of the ongoing eruption on Kilauea's east rift zone. Since the eruption began, lava has destroyed over 180 homes, a National Park Visitor Center, hundreds of vacant houselots, and 2.5 miles of paved roads, waterlines, and utility lines. In all, the lava has covered 29 square miles, causing at least $20 million in damage, not including the loss of some invaluable historical artifacts and sites. These tangible effects tend to obscure another urgent problem stemming from the eruption: the effects on human health of volcanic smog ("Vog"), originating from volcanic vents, and its companion, lava haze ("Laze"), produced when lava enters the ocean. The prevailing winds from the northeast usually carry the Vog toward the southwest, around the southern tip of the island where frictional forces cause it to turn northward into a convergence behind Mauna Loa, where they are effectively capped by trade winds or inversion layers. During kona wind conditions, when wind blows from the southwest to the northeast, the vog impacts population centers on the eastern side of the island, including Hilo. This photographic introduction to how Vog is made will review a short history of the eruption, and how volcanic air pollution continues to be an ongoing concern for Hawaiʻi island residents, who are impacted by two chemically distinct natural sources of air pollutants generated by the current eruption.

The Degassing of a Hawaiian Volcano

Terrence Gerlach
US Geological Survey
Cascades Volcano Observatory
5400 MacArthur Blvd
Vancouver WA 98661

Our understanding of gas emissions from Kilauea Volcano, Hawaiʻi is more comprehensive than for other subaerial volcanoes. In the eighties, sufficient data became available to constrain a complete budget for the gases of Kilauea in terms of influx from mantle sources at depth, storage within the subsurface magma reservoir system of Kilauea, and emission by eruptive and non-eruptive degassing. The picture that emerges for Kilauea provides insights for understanding and predicting gas emissions from other Hawaiian volcanoes, especially Mauna Loa Volcano, as well as other "hot spot" volcanic systems (e.g., Reunion Island). The intention of this presentation is to give a general overview of the Kilauea gas budget emphasizing emission chemistry, abundances, and degassing rates during eruptive and non-eruptive states of the volcano. The main topics to be stressed will include the following: (a) the one-stage gas emission process that dominated the degassing of Kilauea during the previous century; (b) the more complex two-stage emission process that has dominated degassing at Kilauea since 1924; (c) the three chemically distinct gas compositions that account for nearly all volatile emissions from Kilauea; and (d) the different degassing behavior of various gas species, leading to continuous emissions for some species and episodic emissions for others. Comparisons with human agents of pollution will be made, time permitting.

Atmospheric Circulation of Hawaiian Volcanic Gases

Elmer Robinson
Mauna Loa Observatory - NOAA
Hilo, Hawaii

Abstract

This report describes both the large scale and local wind patterns which affect the Island of Hawaiʻi (i.e. The Big Island) from the standpoint of the distribution of Kilauea eruption effluents. Large scale winds are part of the global trade wind regime. Along with the wind patterns, the vertical mixing of the effluents is important, or more exactly the lack of vertical mixing in. the Hawaii-Kona area. Here the vertical mixing is dependent on the nature of the subtropical temperature inversion which is a persistent feature of the meteorology of this part of the world. A third factor affecting the Kilauea effluent distribution is the terrain itself and the resultant interaction between the terrain, the temperature inversion, and the trade wind pattern. Considering these several factors together leads to a logical explanation of why Kilauea effluents can affect the Kona side of Hawaiʻi without passing over the summit of Mauna Loa but rather by moving around the south end of the island and then northerly along the Kona coast. Complex lee eddy flow patterns accomplish this transport and cause the Kilauea effluents to impact the Kona coast.

To be presented to:
Seminar on VOG and LAZE
University of Hawaiʻi at Hilo
July 29, 1991

Mercury, Sulfate and Acids Rains Around Kileauea [sic] Volcano And Their Impact On Vegetation

B. Z. Siegel and Marlene Hachbar-Hapai. Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of Hawaiʻi at Manoa, Honolulu, HI. 96822, and Natural Sciences Division, University of Hawaiʻi at Hilo, Hilo, HI. 96720.

Thousands of hectares of rich and diverse tropical forest and a wide range of agricultural crops flourish in and around Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park. This biological lushness exists even though mercury levels have reached 200+ µg/m3 in the air (EPA recommended level is 1 µg/m3) and the pH of the rain in the area averages around pH 3.2 downwind along the Southwest Rift and approximately pH 3.7 upwind at the Park Service Visitors Center. The impact of mercury on vegetation apparently is ameliorated by selenium and sulfur both of which are also volcanic emissions; data of the molar ratios will be presented. A study of Usnea, a common lichen in the area indicated that photosynthesis, a parameter indicating the "health" of the vegetation, was only partially effected by pH per se, and that the anion played a major role as well. Using rain samples collected bimonthly over a four year period, correlations between the amount of rainfall and pH were not detected. Furthermore a significant discrepancy between sulfate and pH, especially in upwind samples, has raised a question regarding the proton donors. In individual samples the measured SO4 content could not account for the pH, even if it was assumed to be 100% H2SO4. In some concurrent measurements where the mean pH at upwind and downwind stations are within 4% of one another, there is more than a 7-fold greater SO4 content in the rain from the downwind Southwest Rift site. However, of the 52 Southwest Rift samples, close agreement between sulfate and pH was found in only 16%. In extreme case, for example, a class (samples with pH 2.4-2.8) of rain water which a had a mean pH of 2.6, had a mean sulfate content of only 19 mg/L (about 0.2mM), which accounts only for about 10% of the H-ions present. Two alternatives to sulfur acids which might account for the detected low pH values are HCl and strong organic acids (eg. formic) from natural organic decay. The role played by these low pHs, the anions involved, and the presence of volatile metals on vegetation is also discussed.

Lead Contamination in Water Cisterns on the Island of Hawaiʻi

Presented to:
Fourth International Conference on Water
Cistern systems, August 2-4, 1989.
Makati Metro, Philippines.

State of Hawaiʻi
Department of Health
Environmental Management Division
Safe Drinking Water Branch

Abstract

The State of Hawaiʻi Department of Health has taken over 2000 water samples for lead from water cisterns on the Island of Hawaii. Lead concentrations ranged from less than the level of detection (5 µg/l) to over 3,300 µg/l. Al together, about 24% (544 samples) of the water samples collected exceeded the Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) proposed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency for public water systems of 20 µg/l; 11% of the cisterns exceeded the current MCL of 50 µg/l. The highest percentage of systems with lead levels above the MCL was found in West Hawaiʻi where about 23% of the water systems sampled exceeded the 50 µg/l standard.

Acid rain resulting from volcanic emissions is believed to cause the leaching of leaded building materials, such as solder, nails, flashing, and leaded coatings all of which may contribute to elevated lead levels in cistern water. Leaded paints used on roofs and to coat the inside of wooden tanks is responsible for the higher concentrations of lead in cisterns. However, the exact contribution of the various sources of lead in cisterns is not known.

Scientists from the Centers for Disease Control are assisting the Department of Health in studying the relationship of lead in drinking water to lead in blood. Preliminary results indicate that overall, there is a clear relationship between high levels of lead in cistern water and high levels of lead in blood.

Effects Of Hawaiian Volcanic Gases On Human Health: An Overview

J. W. Morrow

The eruptions of Kilauea Volcano are accompanied by increased emissions of a number of gaseous compounds, some of which are potentially hazardous to human health. These include H20, CO2, SO2, H2, CO, HCl, HF, and Hg. The first three normally comprise well over 90% of the gaseous emissions on a mole-percent basis. As with any "toxic" substance, the actual hazard associated with these gases is a function of the inherent toxicity of the gas itself, nature of exposure, and effective dose. This overview will briefly address the aforementioned gases in light of these factors.

H2O, CO2, CO, and H2 can all be dismissed as significant factors in human health either because of their inherently low toxicity, low concentration in volcanic emissions, or both. Only indirectly through their contributions to the "greenhouse" effect might the first three be considered of some significance.

SO2 and its reaction products present the greatest potential for adverse health effects. Emissions which average 1000 - 2000 T/da, but which have reached the equivalent of 32,000 T/da, are capable of producing ambient SO2 concentrations in excess of public health standards. Its ultimate conversion in the atmosphere to a secondary acid aerosol further magnifies and complicates the potential adverse health effects. SO2 and its acidic reaction products are irritants with demonstrated adverse effects on the respiratory system. The odorous H2S is also a highly toxic gas, but its relatively low emission rate renders it much less important than SO2; furthermore, it is eventually oxidized and follows SO2 pathways.

HCl and HF emissions from volcanic vents, while very low relative to SO2, also contribute to the acidic nature of the atmosphere downwind of the volcano. Both are strong irritants capable of causing lung injury. In addition, molten lava flowing into the ocean generates very high HCl concentrations (> OSHA standards), thus creating a localized hazard.

Limited air sampling data suggest elevated Hg levels in Hawaiʻi as compared to non-volcanic areas, but a long-term record, particularly of elemental and organic Hg, is lacking. Hg is of concern because of its cumulative nature and adverse affects on the brain and central nervous system.

There are significant spatial and temporal differences in volcanic gas concentrations due to source, terrain and meteorological factors. As a result, full-time employees at the volcano, emergency services personnel, general public residents of the island, and visiting-to all have different levels of exposure. In addition to these exposure differences, the effective dose received by an individual is largely a function of that individual's personal characteristics and health status as well as the physical/chemical characteristics of each gas or gas product. Additional research efforts are needed to better document the human health hazards associated with Hawaiian volcanic gases.

7/5/91

Hawaiʻi Vog Authority

Hawaiʻi County Council
25 Aupuni Street,
Hilo, Hawaiʻi 96720

The on-going eruption of Kilauea Volcano has created many impacts within Hawaiʻi County. Concerns expressed about possible effects on health agriculture water catchment systems cattle, aquaculture, etc., prompted Hawaiʻi County Council Chairman Russel Kokubun, Councilwoman Merle Lai, and Councilman Harry Ruddle to establish the Hawaiʻi Vog Authority (HVA) in January of 1990.

The goals of the HVA are to gather information, determine what needs to be done, propose legislation to appropriate bodies, and develop recommendations. The Vog Authority provides a much needed forum for the sharing of information and coordinating efforts.

Council Chairman Russell Kokubun serves as Chairman of the Vog Authority. Members represent concerned government agencies, private organizations, and expert resources individuals.

  • Vog Authority Members:
    • Mr. Russell S. Kokubun, Council Chairman
    • Miss Merle Lai, Council Vice-Chairwoman
    • Mr. Harry Ruddle, Councilman
    • Mr. Harry Kim, Civil Defense Administrator
    • Dr. Samuel Ruben, District Health Administrator, Department of Health
    • Ms. Rosalind Ishisaka, District Office Manager, Department of Agriculture
    • Mr. Hugo Huntzinger, Superintendent, Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park
    • Mr. Barry Stokes, Physical Science Technician, Hawaiʻi Volcano Observatory, USGS
    • Mrs. Amy Hamane, American Lung Association, Administrator
    • Ms. Ann Nies, West Hawaiʻi Program Assistant, American Lung Association
    • Dr. Fred Holschuh, President, Hawaiʻi County Medical Society
    • Dr. Jack Fujii, Dean, UH Hilo College of Agriculture
  • Resource People:
    • Mrs. Rosalind Silver, Kailua-Kona
    • Mr. Paul Aki, Chief, Clean Air Branch, Department of Health
    • Dr. Tadashi Higaki, County Director, UH at Manoa, College of Tropical Agriculture
    • Dr. Ray Chuan, Atmospheric Scientist, Femtometrics
    • Mr. James Morrow, Director of Environmental Health, American Lung Association
    • Mr. Robert Thomas, U.S. Weather Bureau

The Vog Authority's first task was to review recommendations made by the Center for Disease Control in 1984 and to determine appropriate application. Progress in implementing applicable recommendations include the collection of emergency room data from Big Island hospitals, the development and implementation of special air sampling andanalysis programs, and the collection of climatological data from the U.S. Weather Bureau. Furthermore, for safety of government employees working in disaster areas, HVA has also sought input from Dr. Terrence Gerlach, Ges Geochemist, David A. Johnston Cascades Volcano Observatory, USGS.

The HVA recognizes the need for more research and analysis and therefore has advocated for State legislation to fund the continuation of special air sampling programs. Additionally, current efforts are directed to developing advisory recommendations and guidelines regarding health impacts of vog for dissemination to residents, visitors and persons considering relocation to the Big Island.

Generation of Hydrochloric Acid by the Interaction of Seawater and Molten Lava: The Making of LAZE

T. M. Gerlach, US Geological Survey, Cascades Volcano Observatory, 5400 MacArthur Blvd, Vancouver WA 98661
J. L. Krumhansl, Sandia-National Laboratories, Albuquerque NM 87185
K. Hon and D. Yager, US Geological Survey, Box 25046, DFC, MS 903, Denver CO 80225
A. Truesdell, US Geological Survey, 345 Middlefield Road, MS 910, Menlo Park CA 94025
J. Morrow, American Lung Association of Hawaii, 245 North Kukui St, Honolulu HI 96817
R. L. Chuan, Femtometrics Costa Mesa CA 92626
R. W. Decker, Center for the Study of Active Volcanoes, University of Hawaiʻi at Hilo, Hilo HI 96720

Continuous eruption on the east rift zone of Kilauea Volcano since July 1986 has established a subsurface lava tube system that permits frequent lava entries into the ocean along the southeast coast of Hawaii. The flows produce spectacular steam explosions and a large plume cloud containing extremely acid condensate that gives rise to acid rains and air pollution known locally as LAZE. Analyses of plume rain indicate it is an acid brine with a salinity about 2.3 times that of seawater and a pH ranging from 1.5 to 2. The concentrations of major elements (Na, K, Mg, Ca, Cl, Br, S) are enriched 2 to 2.5 times over their concentrations in seawater, although their relative proportions are indistinguishable from what they are in seawater. Earlier speculations that the acid rain originated from SO2 and HCl emitted by the lavas are implausible because of the degassed nature of the lavas reaching the ocean. Gerlach et al. (1989) proposed that the acid is derived from HCl gas formed by reaction of high temperature steam with magnesium chloride salts that precipitate when molten lava evaporates seawater to dryness. Irreversible mass transfer calculations predict that the evaporation of 1 liter of seawater to dryness at temperatures of 100-300°C will produce a liter of hydrochloric acid condensate with a pH of 1. The dissolution of this acid in brine droplets formed by the ejection of boiling seawater into the atmosphere produces the observed acid rain with a slightly higher pH resulting from dilution and reactions with lava fragments. More recent chemical studies of plume cloud condensate and rain continue to support the magnesium chloride hydrolysis model. Laboratory experiments on magnesium chloride brines and field experiments on molten lava in active flows with seawater, salt water, and distilled water also provide confirmation of the model Finally, optical, x-ray diffraction, SEM/EDX and Fourier transform infra-red spectroscopic measurements provide evidence of MgO and Mg(OH)2 crystals on the surfaces of lavas reacted with seawater, as predicted by the model.

Gerlach, T.M., Krumhansl, J.L., Fournier, R.O., Kjargaard, J., EOS Trans., 70, 1421-1422, 1989.

Recent Advancements in Spectroscopic Techniques for Remote in-situ Monitoring of Gaseous Species In Volcanic Fog and Volcanic Plumes

Shiv K. Sharma and Christian L. Schoen
Hawaiʻi Institute of Geophysics
School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology
University of Hawaiʻi at Manoa
Honolulu, HI 96822

Abstract

There is a growing awareness of the environmental problems concerning mankind. Human-induced stratospheric changes in the atmosphere due to geophysical research is just one of the many reasons atmosphere monitoring is a necessary technique. In recent years, technological advancements in micro-electronics, optical multichannel detectors, lasers, optical fibers and spectrometers have made It feasible to develop new field monitoring spectroscopy instruments for remote in situ measurements of emission rates of various gaseous species (e.g. H2, H2O, CO2, and trace species) in air. In this paper the authors will briefly review these new spectroscopic techniques. A new designof a pulsed laser Raman spectroscope by Light Detection and Ranging (lidar) will be presented for remotely measuring two or more gaseous species simultaneously In real time In volcanic plumes, volcanic fog, and volcanic haze, caused by the interaction of molten lava wilh seawater. The pulsed laser Raman Lidar will also be useful for monitoring air pollution in general.

Lidar provides a powerful means in which to detect atmospheric compositions. Lidar consists of four different measurement techniques; fluorescence lidar, Raman scattering lidar, Mie scattering lidar, and differential absorption lidar (DIAL). In lidar, a laser pulse is transmit1ed into the atmosphere and backscattered radiation is detected as a function of time by an optical receiver, in a radar-like fashion. In the case of fluorescence lidar, a laser is tuned to the absorption band of the species to be measured while a spectrometer is used to detect the backscaltered fluorescence. Raman lidar is the same as fluorescence, but allows for a much greater variability in laser pump wavelength since the laser need not be tuned to a specific absorption wavelength. Initially it suffered from a weaker signal than fluorescence lidar, current advances in detection capabilities have pushed Raman lidar as the method of choice for monitoring gas concentrations, water vapor profiles up to kilometers in height, and atmospheric N2 at heights of tens of kilometers. Mie scattering from particles provides strong signals allowing mapping of the relative distribution of particles over large areas. Stratospheric dust from volcanic eruptions have been studied using Mie scattering lidar.

Another significant method of lidar is DIAL. DIAL uses laser-light that is alternately transmitted from an absorbing wavelength to a non-absorbing (off-resonant) wavelength of the gas to be measured. By dividing the two signals, the concentration of the pollutant is measured to great accuracy since many of the undesired atmospheric induced parameters are eliminated. The DIAL technique is operational for detecting such gaseous species as SO2, NO2, and O3.

Volcanic Effects on the Elemental Composition of Inhalable Particulates in Hilo and Captain Cook

J. W. Morrow

While numerous studies of gaseous emissions from Hawaiian volcanoes have been conducted, somewhat fewer efforts have been directed at characterizing its particulate emissions. The mass of H2O; CO2, SO2 and other gases is so great compared to the particulate loading, it is not surprising that they have been the primary focus of investigations. Nevertheless, knowledge of the particulate composition is important not just from an academic standpoint but also to better understand geochemical processes, atmospheric chemistry and potential human health effects associated with volcanism in Hawaii.

The volcanic haze, or "vog" as it is called locally, has been a source of concern to local residents, particularly in West Hawaii, for many years. This concern has intensified, along with the "vog" itself, since the ongoing Kilauea eruption commenced in January 1983. It is our hypothesis that "vog" is an aerosol composed of primary and secondary particulate matter.

Historical Department of Health (DOH) air monitoring data, however, do not seem to support this particulate nature of "vog." Routine total suspended particulate (TSP) monitoring conducted at Hilo during the 1972-1985 period averaged only 14 µg/m3 and the highest 24-hr concentration of 169 µg/m3 was still well under the 24-hr primary National Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS) of 260 µg/m3. A special study conducted by the DOH over the June 1985 - August 1986 period at Kealakekua also averaged 14 µg/m3 with a 24-hr maximum of 28 µg/m3. In the case of Hilo, we attribute the failure to detect high TSP levels to (1) its generally upwind location (2) the infrequent sampling (once every 6 days), and (3) the inadequacy of the TSP sampling method to detect changes in fine particulate matter. At Kealakekua we attributed the findings to (2) and (3) above as well as dispersion due to distance from the source.

In order to begin testing this hypothesis, we conducted air sampling at Hilo and Captain Cook during the July 1989 - June 1990 period. A PM10 sampler was installed at each location and programmed to collect day (0700-1900 HST) and night (1900-0700 HST) samples. Samples were analyzed by XRF and ion chromatography. Wind data were collected onsite at Captain Cook and obtained from the National Weather Service for Keahole and Hilo Airports.

Results revealed low PM10 levels relative to the current NAAQS. With the exception of S and Cl, all other elements were essentially at trace levels. Sulfur was the predominant element at Captain Cook, while Cl dominated at Hilo. Crustal elements (Si, Al, Fe, Ca, and K) were the next most abundant. Fossil-fuel related elements (Ni, V, and Pb) were significantly (p < 0.01) higher in Hilo. Of 37 elements identified, only Se showed a weak, positive correlation (R² = 0.47) with sulfur, the best indicator of "vog" infiltration at Captain Cook. This work suggests that, with the exception of S, the volcano has little long-term impact on the elemental composition of inhalable particulates.

7/5/91

Lava-Seawater Interactions and the Resultant Steam Plume at Wahaula, Hawaiʻi

J. A. Resing and F. J. Sansone, Department of Oceanography, University of Hawaiʻi at Manoa, 1000 Pope Road, Honolulu, Hawaiʻi 96822; (808) 956-8370

Chemical, physical, and visual observations were made of lava entering the ocean near Wahaula Heiau. The site under study included the coastal ocean and the nearshore littoral environment. Physical and chemical interactions of molten lava with seawater are major contributors to the formation of laze. The physical processes that contribute to laze production include explosive events, the formation of steam, the precipitation of this steam, and highly elevated ocean temperatures. The important chemical processes include water/lava and water/hot-rock reactions that cause the formation of acid and which produce aerosol particles that are entrained in the steam.

Land- and ocean-based samples were taken at this site to determine the chemical and physical effects on the nearshore environment. Precipitation samples collected on land had pH value of ~1.7, with salinities nearly twice that of the local seawater. These samples also showed depletions in magnesium and enrichments in calcium when normalized to chlorinity. Tide pool seawater samples showed similar trends. Coastal ocean samples showed depletions in alkalinity, total CO2, and pH, each showing a strong inverse correlation with increase in-water temperature. Temperatures in excess of 70°C were measured in the coastal ocean.

Ongoing sampling of the steam plume is currently being conducted. The goal of this research is to determine chemical mass balances for the lava/seawater/buoyant-plume/nonbuoyant-plume system.

Atmospheric Geochemistry at Windward and Leeward Locations on the Island Of Hawaiʻi During the Early Eruptive Phases of Puu Oo

Joseph B. Halbig, Center for the Study of Active Volcanoes, University of Hawaiʻi at Hilo, Hilo, HI 96720-4091
Walther M. Barnard, Department of Geosciences, State University of New York College at Fredonia, Fredonia, NY 14063

A study funded by the State of Hawaii, Department of Business and Economic Development, was conducted in 1983 and early 1984 to characterize the atmospheric geochemistry at windward (Panaewa) and leeward (Kawaihae) locations on the Island of Hawaii. A variety of data was collected on air and rainwater chemistry and on meteorological conditions; this paper particularly addresses the results of chemical determinations of the acidic components (with emphasis on sulfate ion) in air and rainwater samples.

Kawaihae rainwater samples ranged in pH from 4.4.to 5.7, with a median value of 5.0 (N=14), whereas Panaewa samples exhibited a range of 4.0 to 5.2, with a median value of 4.8 (N=22). Median total sulfate concentrations were 0.88 and 1.4 mg/L, respectively. The windward Pawaewa site showed, in general, higher sulfate concentrations as well as the greatest range in concentrations. These results tend to infer that the chief control on sulfate in rainwater is from a mechanism such as long-range transport in the mid-troposphere, rather than due to local sources. There was no strong correlation between pH and amount of rainfall; a plot of pH versus log rainfall gave scattered results, probably due in part to the fact that rainfall both scavenges and dilutes, two antithetic processes.

High volume air samples were taken at each site approximately every eighth day, and were similarly analyzed for acidic components by ion chromatography techniques. The amount of sulfate in excess (xsSO4) of that derived from the ocean (OD) was calculated assuming that all sodium was of seasalt origin. At Kawaihae the mean total sulfate concentration was 2.1 µg/m3 (N=20) with xsSO4 = 1.4 µg/m3, and at Panaewa the respective values were 1.1 (N=26) and 0.52 µg/m3. The calculated ratios of xsSO4:SO4 (OD) are 2.05:1 for Kawaihae and 0.98:1 for Panaewa. These results indicate that the leeward side of the island receives a significantly greater amount of sulfate of local origin, which is contributed by anthropogenic and/or volcanic sources. In a few cases relatively high sulfate concentrations were measured at the Kawaihae site during or immediately following an eruptive phase of Puu Oo, but such correlation was not apparent for the entire set of data.

Contributions of the Hawaiian Rainband Project to Understanding Island Air Flow Patterns and Variability

Thomas A. Schroeder
Department of Meteorology
University of Hawaiʻi At Manoa

The Hawaiian Rainband Project (HaRP 1990), although mainly planned for the study of windward Big Island rainfall systems, did include a number of components of use in understanding the fundamental nature of island-wide processes. Six research aircraft flights (of a total of 29) were devoted to the wake of the island. The aircraft was not instrumented for chemistry but was able to map aerosol concentrations. Portable weather stations were able to provide real-time description of windws within sparsely sampled regions of Puna and Ka'u. Doppler radars actually monitored clouds over the Kalapana coast at the flow front.

I shall discuss the general impressions from highly preliminary work with the HaRP data and discuss (with slides) the wake flight of the morning of 11 August.

Volcanic Haze-Physicochemistry and Transport

Antony D. Clarke and John N. Porter
School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology
University of Hawaiʻi at Manoa, Honolulu, HI 96822

We have measured the size distribution and volatility of volcanic haze aerosol during ship cruises in the central Pacific and aircraft flights around the Big Island of Hawaii. Instruments included a condensation nuclei (CN) counter that provides the total number of particles greater than 0.015 µm diameter and a laser optical particle counter (LOPC) that sizes the aerosol over the size range from 0.15 to 7.5 µm diameter. A preheater is incorporated into the LOPC system in order to drive off aerosol volatile at both 150°C and 300°C (e.g. sulfuric acid and ammonium sulfate respectively) and leave a refractory aerosol that is either soot, sea-salt or dust. The size distributions of each component can thereby be resolved allowing the number, surface area and mass of the aerosol to be determined in near real-time. During April 1989, aircraft measurements made around the Big Island were taken in the plume that had aged on the order of a few hours to a day. These were part of CPACE (Central Pacific Atmospheric Chemistry Experiment) aboard the Electra aircraft sponsored by the National center for Atmospheric Research. In the prior year, similar measurements were made aboard the NOAA ship Oceanographer in the vicinity of Johnston Island. Here we encountered volcanic aerosol after about one week transport in the marine boundary layer.

Near Kona the CN concentrations in the plume were about 3000 cm-3 compared to about 400 cm-3 outside of it while values near Johnston Island were about 500 cm-3 in the plume compared to 200 cm-3 away from it. An example of the LOPC aerosol volume distribution near Kona at 1,500 ft. altitude and at the surface near Johnston Island is shown for preheat temperatures at ambient, 150°C and 300°. The figure below shows most of the volatile volcanic aerosol mass to be centered near 0.3 µm diameter in both locations. The indicated sulfate concentrations (inferred) represent values one to two orders of magnitude higher than typical remote marine values. They confirm satellite data suggesting the plume presence up to 1000km downwind of the Big Island. The remaining larger nonvolatile aerosol is commonly sea-salt and/or dust. Further descriptions of both data sets will be presented.

Kona Plume on 4/12/89 average across plume at 15000ft Alt

Johnston Plume on 4/24/88 average in plume at surface

The Atmospheric Fate of Sulfur Gases From Kilauea Volcano

J. W. Morrow

The gaseous emissions from Kilauea Volcano have been studied intermittently since the early part of this century. Sulfur dioxide (SO2) was identified as one of the three major components along with H2O vapor and CO2. Another sulfur gas, H2S, also comprises a small fraction (approximately 1.0 mole-%) of these emissions. Kilauea is currently in the eighth year of an eruptive phase that began in January 1983. SO2emissions over this period have been variable and at times massive. On 4 December 1984, for example, an emission rate equivalent to 32,000 T/da continued for 15 hrs. This rate may be further put into perspective when one considers that U.S. EPA regulations define a "major source" as one which emits 100 T/yr.

Despite these significant emissions, ambient air monitoring on the Island of Hawaiʻi has not detected high SO2 levels. Routine monitoring by the Department of Health (DOH) at Hilo averaged < 5 µg/m3 (2 ppb) over the 1972 - 1985 period with maximum 24-hr concentrations not exceeding 45 µg/m3 (17 ppb), well under the 24-hr National Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS) of 365 µg/m3 (139 ppb). A special study conducted by the DOH over the June 1985 - August 1986 period at Kealakekua also averaged < 5 µg/m3 with a 24-hr maximum of 12 µg/m3 (5 ppb). In the case of Hilo, we attribute the failure to detect high SO2 levels to (1) its generally upwind location and (2) the infrequent sampling (once every 6 days). At Kealakekua in West Hawaii, we attributed the findings to (1) dispersion due to distance from the source and (2) conversion of SO2to SO4= particles during transport from the source and trapping behind the Mauna Loa mountain mass.

In order to begin testing the hypothesis of SO2-to-SO4= conversion, we conducted air sampling at Hilo and Captain Cook during the July 1989 - June 1990 period. A PM10 sampler was installed at each location and programmed to collect day (0700-1900 HST) and night (1900-0700 HST) samples. Samples were analyzed by XRF and ion chromatography. Wind data were collected onsite at Captain Cook and obtained from the National Weather Service for Keahole and Hilo Airports.

Results revealed very low SO4= levels at Hilo most of the year but clearly showed episodes during southerly (kona) wind conditions when the plume from the volcanic vents was carried toward the city. In Captain Cook, the annual mean SO4= was 4.7 µg/m3 while Hilo was 1.9 µg/m3, a significant difference (p < 0.01), but 12-hr maxima at the two sites were comparable (13 - 15 µg/m3). No diurnal variation was found at either site, but significant seasonal differences were observed. Hilo experienced higher winter-time SO4= levels (p < 0.01) while Captain Cook had higher levels in the summer (p < 0.10). We attribute this to the NE trade wind regime which is more dominant in the summer. On an annual basis, SO4= also comprised a large portion of the PM10 mass at Captain Cook (38%) versus Hilo (15%), but both sites experienced similar maxima during episodes (51 - 67%). The findings of this work provide support for the original hypothesis of SO2-to-SO4= conversion.

7/5/91

Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Station: A View From the Field

Tamar Elias
Mauka Environmental Monitoring
P.O. Box 901
Volcano, Hawaiʻi 96785

The National Park Service was charged by its founding legislation to protect air quality in the National Parks. A Congressional mandate passed in 1986 allowed the Park Service to expand their nationwide air quality monitoring network to include an ambient air quality monitoring station at the summit of Kilauea Volcano in Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park. Instrumentation at this site has monitored SO2 concentrations as well as wind speed, wind direction, temperature, dewpoint, solar radiation and rainfall since October 1986. Fine particle (<2.5 micron) and PM10 particle (<10 micron) samples are collected on stacked filter units. The fine particles are analyzed for mass, the elements sodium to lead, hydrogen, the coefficient of optical absorption, organic and light-absorbing carbon, nitrate and SO2. While this network of stations was initially conceived to monitor man-made air pollution, continuous monitoring at the summit of Kilauea provides a valuable record of the effects of eruptive activity on air quality.

The instrument system was originally configured with a SO2 UV fluorescence analyzer operating in the 0-1 ppm range. In June of 1991, an additional analyzer with a 5 ppm range was added to document sporadic excursions beyond 1 ppm. These two instruments along with the meteorological equipment provide a basis for interpreting the SO2 data.

SO2 levels have exceeded the Ambient Air Quality 3 and 24 hour standards established by the EPA several times a year. The data show that the Hawaiʻi Volcanoes maximum SO2 values from 1988-1989 were four times higher than any other National Park including those near urban/industrial areas.

A preliminary interpretation of data suggests that two distinct wind patterns accompany periods of high SO2concentration, and that high rainfall reduces SO2 levels.

Visitors' Delight and Managers' Dilemma: Providing Access to Kupaianaha Lava Flows in Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park

Dan Taylor, Chief of Resources Management
Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park

26 June, 1991

Park visitors and employees have been closely associated with volcanic gasses and aerosols since lava flows from Kupaianaha Vent arrived at accessible lowland sites in 1987. Park managers expressed concern over the short and long term health effects from exposure to fallout from the plume at the shore. The Park thus promoted a simple and inexpensive study in 1988 by the University of California (Davis) Air Quality Group. The study indicated health hazard from high amounts of inhalable and respirable particulates in the plume. Despite obvious solutions, managers took nearly a year to respond with appropriate policies to guide visitor access to lava viewing and protective equipment for workers.

Respiratory Effects To Man By Volcanic Eruption In Hawaiʻi

7/1/91, Carl P. Hallenborg.

Introduction

Respiratory complaints are associated with volcanic eruption by patients and health care workers. The existence of such claims, as well as the cause, is being examined by our group.

Protocol

The respiratory health of 50 healthy children and adults upwind from the volcano (Hilo) was compared to 50 subjects downwind (Kona) during the study period 1989-1990.

Daily peak flow and spirometric data were compared to certain pollutants, particulates, and sulfates known to cause respiratory illness.

Results

Sulfate and particulate pollution do not reach levels known to cause respiratory illness in controlled situations. A few subjects apparently suffered from even mild elevation in pollution. An overall downward trend in pulmonary function is noted in both children and adults.

Discussion

Our results are similar to other longer studies. Some react adversely to mild elevation of pollution, more have a small but statistically significant reduction in overall pulmonary function.

Summary

Volcanic eruption adversely affects respiratory health, at least in the short term, but does not cause environmental health catastrophe. Further study is justified.

The Production of Hydrochloric Acid Aerosol from the Eruption of Kilauea Volcano

R. L. Chuan (Femtometrics, Costa Mesa, CA 92627)

Two mechanisms have been observed to produce hydrochloric acid aerosol from the eruption of Kilauea Volcano. while there is a large quantity of sulfuric acid aerosol from the Pu'u O'o vent, as well as hydrogen chloride gas, there is no evidence of the latter in aqueous form. The only hydrochloric acid aerosol found is apparently the result of secondary processes. One is from the flash evaporation of sea water, along with the salts, when lava from the volcano enters the ocean, as first observed by Gerlach. The other is the reaction of the sulfuric acid aerosol with sea salt as the plume from the Pu'u O'o vent is transported over the ocean, the reaction yielding sodium sulfate and hydrogen chloride, the latter then hydrolizing to hydrochloric acid aerosol. Evidence of this mechanism is found in aerosol samples taken from the west coast or the island of Hawaiʻi at Kona, about 100 km from the vent, in a populated area that has been experiencing the deleterious effects of VOG. Aside from sulfuric acid in the Kona aerosol samples there are also found sodium chloride and sodium sulfate crystals, as well as droplets of hvdrochloric acid. Whereas sulfuric acid constitutes over 80% of the total aerosol mass from the Pu'u O'o vent, in the Kona samples it only constitutes about 50%, the balance being in silicates and sodium chloride (30%), and sodium sulfate and aqueous hydrogen chloride (20%).

Sources of Sulfur in Volcanic Haze: Preliminary Report of Isotopic Results

Casadevall, T. J. and R. O. Rye, U.S. Geological Survey, Denver, CO 80225 and J. W. Morrow, American Lung Association, Honolulu, HI 96817

We have begun sulfur isotope analysis of sulfate on high-volume air filter samples collected at Kalapana and Captain Cook on the island of Hawaiʻi in order to determine the source of sulfur in volcanic haze. A technique for recovering small amounts of sulfate from filters as well as the instrumental methods for isotopic analysis of small samples have been developed. Sulfate was leached from filters which were collected during 12 hour diurnal periods under differing wind regimes including daytime northeasterly trade winds, nighttime drainage winds, and occasionally southerly "kona" winds. The quantity of sulfate recovered as BaSO4 is typically very small (< 1 to 14 micrograms). This small sample size presents some analytical challenges for mass spectrometry by conventional techniques which are currently being worked out.

Preliminary data indicate two distinct sources of sulfur in these samples. Seawater sulfate (+20 per mil δ34S) is indicated for low yield samples collected in November 1990 at the Kalapana site (upwind from degassing lava) during normal trade wind conditions. Sulfate of dominantly magmatic origin (+2 to +5 per mil δ34S) is indicated for higher-yield samples collected during the same period at the downwind site at Captain Cook.

Informal report prepared for seminar on Vog and Laze, UH Hilo, 29 July 1991. This informal report has not been approved for publication by USGS.

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